THE FIRST EVENT OF INSTRUCTION is gaining attention (Gagne, 1974). Good instructional design directs the learners' attention, helping them avoid distractions and "information overload". In this article, we discuss three major attention theories and why they are relevant to instructional design.

How do we pay attention to more than one thing at a time? The bottleneck theory describes a process that uses a filter to temporarily block one channel while the other channel processes information.
An audio experiment prompted this idea. Several men listened to three pairs of numbers presented simultaneously to both ears. In other words, a number was heard in their left ear (channel) at the exact time a different number was heard in their right ear (channel).
When asked to recite what they had heard in any order, they listed all the numbers from one ear, and then all the numbers from the other ear. When asked to recite the numbers in pairs, accuracy dropped considerably.

See the bottleneck? It is where the two funnels merge into one. At that juncture, a filter blocks sensory input from one channel until the other channel is through processing. The mechanical model theorizes that information processing is more efficient when that filter swings once, instead of swinging back and forth between channels. It also places the bottleneck before pattern recognition.

Both bottleneck and capacity theories are necessary to explain why some tasks interfere with each other, and others do not. For example, can you carry on a conversation while driving a car? What happens when traffic gets heavier, or when you are lost?
According to capacity theory, we not only have a filter that manages sensory input from multiple channels, but we also have limited attention capacity.
Initially, attention capacity increases as arousal increases. But at a certain point the relationship changes and higher levels of arousal impede capacity and interfere with performance.

The multimode theory of attention builds on the two prior theories and adds a new dimension called, "mode of selection." Mode of selection can be viewed on a continuum with "early mode" on one end and "late mode" on the other. A couple of things happen as you move from early to late mode of selection: the bottleneck shifts to filter input after pattern recognition, and attention capacity decreases. Both these events can inhibit the performance of secondary tasks.
Early mode does not require pattern recognition and discrimination, and is demonstrated visually in Exhibit 1. The audio exercise (Exhibit 2) requires that you discriminate between two messages, repeating only one. Thus, you will experience late mode of selection.

Now that you know about attention theory, how do you apply it to instructional design? While designing, ask yourself:  

        How complex is the task you want the learner to perform?

        Does it require early or late mode of selection?

        How intense is the working environment? What will the learners’ state of arousal be while performing the task?

         Are the attention getting devices used in the training design going to enhance or impede desiredperformance? 

Dawn Papaila
Papaila, D. (2001). Attention. In B. Hoffman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Technology. Retrieved July 14, 2010,